DE-2LS: Differential Evolution with Late-Stage local-search for Unconstrained Single-Objective Numerical Optimization
Unconstrained single-objective numerical optimization requires a careful balance among global exploration, late-stage exploitation, and function-evaluation efficiency. This paper presents DE-2LS, a late-stage, local-search-enhanced differential evolution framework built on RDEx for unconstrained single-objective optimization with variable bounds. The proposed method preserves the original RDEx evolutionary search engine and introduces two conservative refinements: a smoothed exploitation-biased branch-rate update in the late search stage and a guarded coordinate-pattern local-search that serves as a budget-aware refinement mechanism. Since the considered setting is unconstrained apart from variable bounds, all selection and local-search acceptance decisions are based solely on objective values. To determine the final algorithm configuration, we conduct a staged ablation study by testing multiple settings of the EB-rate smoothing mechanism, the initial EB-rate, the standard-branch Gaussian sampling scale, the selection-pressure parameters, and the local-search coefficients. The final configuration is selected using a U-score-based evaluation that jointly reflects solution quality and convergence speed. Experimental results show that DE-2LS consistently improves the original RDEx in direct head-to-head comparison. In particular, DE-2LS increases the U-score from $33602.0$ to $37448.0$, corresponding to an improvement of $11.45\%$. Moreover, compared with several competitive and IEEE CEC-winning algorithms, DE-2LS achieves the best overall U-score of $178966.5$, outperforming the others by $34.43\%$. These results show that a carefully designed late-stage local-search strategy can improve both convergence speed and the final objective quality of the algorithm. The source code of DE-2LS is available at https://github.com/ChauhanDikshit?tab=repositories.