Evaluation of Mobile Augmented Reality in Orthodontic Training using the Technology Acceptance Model: A Multicentre Quasi-experimental Study

Ziqan Zhou, Norehan Mokhtar, Gururajaprasad Kaggal Lakshmana Rao, Anis Farhan Kamaruddin, Nguyen Tran, Syaidatul Salmah Nurbalqis Saiful, Hasnah Hashim, Maryati Md Dasor

TL;DR: Findings indicate that dental students showed favourable acceptance of MAR-ORTHO-EDU 2.0, with ease of use and attitude, rather than PU, emerging as the primary drivers of adoption intention in orthodontic training.

Introduction: Mobile Augmented Reality (MAR) has shown potential in orthodontic education, yet evidence within orthodontic training specifically remains scarce. Understanding student acceptance is critical to guiding its curriculum integration. Aim: To evaluate undergraduate dental students’ acceptance of a Machine Learning-Enabled Mobile Augmented Reality System (MAR-ORTHO-EDU 2.0) based on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). Materials and Methods: This multicentre quasi-experimental study was conducted across four Malaysian public universities (Universiti Sains Malaysia, Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, and Universiti Teknologi MARA) from November 2022 to June 2023. A total of 227 undergraduate dental students (years 3 and 4) were enrolled: 105 in the control group and 122 in the intervention group. The present paper reports the TAM component of this larger study, administered exclusively to the intervention group (n=122) following a didactic lecture, system demonstration, and oneweek access to the MAR-ORTHO-EDU 2.0 application. The TAM questionnaire assessed Perceived Usefulness (PU), Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU), Attitude toward Use (AT), and Behavioural Intention (BI) via convenience sampling. Demographic variables, including gender, year of study, and Emotional Intelligence (EQ), were recorded. Pearson’s correlation and multivariable linear regression were used for analysis (p<0.05). Results: The TAM questionnaire demonstrated robust internal consistency (Cronbach’s α=0.88-0.91). Participants reported favourable acceptance across all domains. The strongest correlation was observed between AT and PU (r=0.791), followed by AT and BI (r=0.780). Multivariable regression indicated that PEOU (p=0.029) and AT (p<0.001) were significant predictors of BI, collectively explaining 69.1% of the variance. PU was not significant in the multivariable model, suggesting mediation through AT. Conclusion: These findings indicate that dental students showed favourable acceptance of MAR-ORTHO-EDU 2.0, with ease of use and attitude, rather than PU, emerging as the primary drivers of adoption intention in orthodontic training.